Early India: The Chalcolithic, Megalithic, Iron Age and Vedic Cultures Online Test 11th History Lesson 15 Questions in English

1. The Painted Grey Ware Culture of which Age has been identified by archaeologists at many excavated sites, is associated with the Later Vedic culture?

2. Which among the following were composed after the Rig Veda?

3. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The Aryan speakers expanded from the Punjab to Western Uttar Pradesh in the Ganga Yamuna doab in the Later Vedic period. The history of ancient India was thus marked by the movement of cultures, and interactions and battles among various groups for territories and resources.
2. It has been suggested that while the Aryans migrated to the region of western part of the Ganga valley, the Indo-Iranians migrated from the region of Iran to the region of Punjab. The later Vedic texts speak about the region of kamsala which falls in the Indo Gangetic divide and the Upper Ganga Valley.

4. The area mentioned as the south-eastern boundary of the Aryans in Rig Veda is listed in which among the following book?

5. Which among the following is not the tribes of later Vedic period?

6. References to which rivers occur in the later Vedic texts?

7. Around 1000 BCE, the Vedic Aryans in Kosala region in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in North Bihar encountered the local people following which material culture?

8. Which among the following statement is correct?
1. In the Upper Ganga valley, the Vedas acquired pali words indicating that pali speaking-people lived in the Ganga valley. The region of Kosala and Videha were the northernmost territories of the Aryan expansion during this period. By the end of the Vedic period Panchala and Videha were Aryanised.
2. The area beyond this region in the east was seen as an alien territory. In the Atharva Veda, the people of Anga and Magadha (Bihar) were seen as enemies. Similarly, the Pundras of Bengal and the Andhras were seen as outside the Aryan identity in the Aitreya Brahmana.
3. This suggests that these regions were not influenced by Aryan culture. What we gather is that the process of Aryanization gradually spread from the north-west to the south-east mainly into the Ganga Valley.

9. Which was an important metal used for implements in later Vedic period?

10. In Later Vedic period iron was called as _____

11. Which term referring to territory, which is found in the Brahmanas dated to ca. 800 BCE?

12. Which among the following statement is correct regarding later Vedic period
1. People lived either in mud-brick houses or houses with wattle and daub walls. The foundations for the towns must have emerged during the early Vedic period. This was a period of intense interactions. The term salai, referring to commercial quarters, is found in the later Vedic texts.
2. However, large towns appeared only at the end of the Vedic period. The sites of Hastinapura and Kausambi are considered proto urban (urban-like) settlements. The material culture of this period shows more diversity and is an improvement over the Early Vedic period. It can be surmised that there was surplus production to support various classes such as chiefs, princes and priests.

13. In the Later Vedic period the influence of assembly which once (early Vedic) elected kings is called) _____

14. Who was the leader who led the army in the battle in later Vedic period?

16. Which among the following means ‘one who places the king in the forefront’, became important in the establishment of polity and kingship?

17. Which among the following book says that king has to provide 1000 pieces of gold and cattle to the Brahmana who anoints him?

18. The king received voluntary or compulsory contribution from the people is called ___

19. Which among the following means sovereign power appeared?

15. The legitimization of kingship became important with the performance of which among the following sacrifices?

20. Who among the following characterises the developments in the first millennium BCE as the movement from lineage to state?

21. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The development of state level political organization emerged only after 500 BCE, and the Later Vedic society was therefore in transition. Several lineages became more territorial and settled in the Later Vedic Age. This is evidenced by the term janapada, as we saw earlier.
2. The mid-first millennium BCE had political organisations such as rajya and ganasanghas (oligarchies) and these institutions developed in the later Vedic period.

22. Which two clans combined to form the Kurus, and along with the Panchalas they occupied the central part of the Ganga-Yamuna doab?

23. The Kuru-Panchalas became one major ethnic group and their capital was _____

24. Where the Kuru clan moved after the Hastinapur was flooded according to tradition?

26. Which among the following ritual involved a chariot race?

25. Which among the following involved letting a horse loose into areas where it moved freely?

27. In later Vedic period teaching was seen as the occupation of whom?

28. Who among the following refers to Rajanya?

29. In which among the following the Kshatriya is placed first, higher than the Brahmana?

30. Who challenged Brahmanical supremacy and their exclusive privilege of entering the asramas, a regulated four stage life namely brahmacharya, grihasta, vanaprastha and sanyasa?

31. Which among the following was limited to the upper sections of the society?

32. Who among the following was denied Gayatri mantra?

33. Which refers to the Brahmana as the seeker of support and he could be removed by king from his position?

34. Which among the following statement is correct
1. Certain craft groups managed to attain higher status. For example, the Rathakaras, the chariot makers, had the right to wear the sacred thread. Vaisya referred to the common people. They were involved in agriculture, cattle breeding and artisans. Later they became traders.
2. Shudras paid tax to the kings. Some social groups were placed in ranking even below the Sudras. However, cross varna marriages did not happen. The idea of gotra emerged in the Vedic period. Gotra literally meant ‘cowpen’ and it referred to a group of people from a common ancestor.
3. Persons of the same gotra were considered as brothers and sisters and could not therefore intermarry. Several unilineal descent groups existed with common ancestors. Several related clans formed the tribe.

35. In later Vedic period the married man with his wife was _____

36. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The household became more structured, which means it became more organised. The family was an important social unit. The family was matriarchal with matrilineal descent. The relations within the family were non-hierarchical.
2. Polygyny (taking many wives) was prevalent. Several household rituals were also developed for the welfare of the family. The concept of asramas, referring to various stage of life, was not well established in this time. While brahmacharya, grihasta and vanaprastha are mentioned, sanyasa had not developed.

37. Who are spoken of as a source of trouble in later Vedic period?

38. Which among the following contributed to the economic development in later Vedic period?

39. Which among the following mentions rituals related to ploughing undertaken by the kings?

40. Which god is depicted with a plough, which suggests the importance of cultivation?

41. Which among the following was the staple food of Punjab region?

42. Which among the following statement is incorrect
1. Pastoralism continued to be important. Cattle were considered sacred. They became part of exchange and redistribution. The offering of cattle as part of dakshina continued. Pastoralism supplemented agriculture.
2. Arts and crafts proliferated during the Later Vedic age and craft specialization took deep roots, when compared to early Vedic period, since more occupational groups are mentioned in this period. Evidence of iron work is noticed from about 1200 BCE.

43. Which among the following metals was not mentioned in later Vedic period?

44. Which among the following objects were used for making weapons for war and hunting in later Vedic period?

45. The term Kulala refers to whom?

46. Which among the following statement is correct
1. Bow makers, rope makers, arrow makers, hide dressers, stone breakers, physicians, goldsmiths and astrologers are some of the specialized professional groups mentioned in the later Vedic texts. Professions such as physicians, washerman, hunters, boatman, astrologer and cook are mentioned.
2. References to the elephant are often found in the Rig Veda, along with the elephant keeper. The increase in references to such groups indicates a society in transformation. The performers of Vedic sacrifices were also a type of service providers.
3. The priest played an important role in legitimizing the role of king through various rituals. Wealth was measured in terms of cattle and animals. There is a mention of offerings of 20 camels, 100 gold necklaces, 300 horses and 10,000 cows as dakshina.

47. Which among the following statement is correct
1. Trade and exchange had developed in the Later Vedic age. The material culture found in the archaeological sites reveals the movement of commodities and materials. Specialised caravan traders existed.
2. The evidence of coins has been found in various sites and therefore barter must have been eliminated from the practice. The introduction of coins took place in early Vedic period. The coins used are copper with Indra seal.

48. Which among the following god became the main deity in later Vedic period?

49. Who is the god of rituals, identified with Siva, became important?

50. The Satapatha Brahmana lists the names of Rudra as what?

51. Which among the following statement is correct regarding rituals in later Vedic period
1. Rituals became important in society. It was believed that rituals and sacrifices could solve many problems. The rituals became more complex, required more resources, and took longer time. This indirectly reflects the demand for rituals and the formation of elite groups who could spend more resources on rituals and sacrifices.
2. The correct performance of rituals was stressed. Stress was laid on paying dakshina. Numerous rituals were prescribed for solving all kinds of day-to-day problems. The resort to rituals and sacrifices as a solution for problems led to the view that material wealth could achieve anything.
3. The ideas in the Yajur-Veda argue against such a view, and stress the importance of realising the atman or inner self. Such degeneration of rituals and the material-oriented nature of the priests created dissension and led to the development of heterodox faiths such as Buddhism and Jainism which emphasized correct human behaviour and discipline.

52. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The disciplines of philosophy, literature and science developed in this period. Various branches of learning such as literature, grammar, mathematics, ethics and astronomy developed. Education was limited to males and females of both Brahmana and Kshatriyas.
2. Teacher-pupil relationship was cultivated through person-oriented training. The development of Vedic texts and the importance given to pronunciation, grammar and oral transmission suggest training in utterances and memorization, as part of the Vedic system of education.
3. The development of various types of texts could be considered as developing solutions for certain mundane issues and a quest for knowledge. They lay stress on knowledge and the realization of the self or atman and Brahman (the Supreme Being), meditation, cycle of birth and death. They convey the ideas of karma, and good conduct, self-restraint, mercy and generosity as virtues. Despite the ritual dominated aspects of Vedic life, some seers were in pursuit of knowledge and virtuous conduct.

53. Upanishads (which means to sit nearby) texts with philosophical enquiries, were also refer to as what?

54. Which Mughal prince, translated the Upanishads into Persian in 1657?

55. Which among the following music instrument is not referred in late Vedic period?

56. Which among the following was not used in later Vedic period?

57. Which among the following statement is incorrect
1. Later Vedic period is marked by lineages of clans, and small kingdoms developed in many parts of the Indus valley, leading to the development of the state after 800 BCE. The idea of janapada and rashtra as territorial units had developed.
2. The raja wielded much power and the social divisions began to strike deep roots. The varna system had developed well and Sudra identity became more marked during this period.

58. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The history of India, after the decline of the Indus Civilization around 200 CE, is characterised by the presence of nomadic microlith-using hunter-gatherers and pastoral, semi-sedentary and sedentary agro-pastoral communities of the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Iron Ages and Vedic Cultures.
2. We have two main types of sources for this long span of time (c. 3000 to 600 BCE) in Indian history. One source is the archaeological sites and material culture including pottery, plant remains and metal objects. The other is Vedic literature. There are no written documents for this period, since the Vedic texts were transmitted orally.
3. At this point of time, people had not developed a script in India, except the symbols of the Indus script which are yet to be deciphered. Correlating the archaeological cultures and the information related to various groups of people from the Vedic texts is not an easy task. There are various theories on the identity of the originators of the Indus Civilization, and various other archaeological cultures.

59. The Early Vedic culture is correlated with some of the which cultures of India?

60. How many Vedas are there?

61. Which among the following is the oldest among the vedas?

62. Which among the following information does Vedas contain?

63. The main collections of Vedic hymns are called _____

64. The Rig Veda contains how many books?

66. Which Veda was composed in musical notes which are considered to constitute the basis of Indian music?

65. Which among the following statement is correct
1. Samhitas are philosophical texts, and they explain the social and religious importance of Philosophy. Each Samhita has added texts called Aranyaka, which have commentaries on the hymns and rituals. Each Aranyaka has a brahmanas (forest text) and an Upanishad.
2. The Aranyaka contain mystical ritual instructions to be undertaken in secret by the sages who live in the forests. Upanishads deal with philosophical enquiries. The Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas are dated to a slightly later period.
3. The Samhita of the Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, and the brahmanas, Aranyaka and Upanishad attached to the Vedas are the Late Vedic texts. The Vedic texts were memorized and orally transmitted by Brahmins from generation to generation.

67. Which Veda contains charms and magical spells?

68. The Zend Avesta is the text of which among the following religion?

69. Which among the following Vedas has rituals and hymns?

70. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The Pre-Harappan cultures are the earliest Chalcolithic cultures of India, and they are found in the time before the beginning of the mature phase of the Harappan culture, and continued to exist in the later period. The other Chalcolithic cultures of India are more or less contemporary to this phase of Harappan culture and they continued even after its decline.
2. Unlike the mature urban phase of the Harappan civilization, Chalcolithic cultures were pastoral and based on farming, generally rural in nature. They used stone blades and pottery and also low-grade copper in the later period. Irons were unknown to these people. Their settlements were dynamic or semi-dynamic.
3. The houses were made of stone, mud bricks, mud and perishable wooden materials, and built on a stone foundation. Silos (well-prepared pits) meant for storage of grains have also been found. In the north-western and western regions of India, the early farming cultures are associated with the Chalcolithic cultures rather than the Neolithic cultures.

71. Which among the following animal evidence has not been found in settlement of Chalcolithic people?

72. The walls were made with which among the following frames in Chalcolithic culture?

73. In Chalcolithic culture houses were made of what?

The Chalcolithic sites have produced a large quantity of which objects?

75. Which among the following statement is correct
1. Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware culture is found in northern India dating to the Chalcolithic period. The OCP pottery has red slip and appears ochre in colour (the ochre colour comes off when the pottery is touched) and hence, it is called Ochre Coloured Pottery.
2. The OCP pottery has black painted designs. The OCP comes in the form of jars, storage jars, bowls, and basins. The OCP culture dates to 2600- 1200 BCE and is found in the Indo Gangetic plain and may have had some associations with early Vedic culture.
3. The OCP culture is seen as an impoverished Harappan culture and some scholars see it as unrelated to the Harappan culture. The OCP sites produced stone figures and objects and therefore it is also known as “stone hoard culture.” It is a rural culture and has evidence of the cultivation of wheat, barley, and legumes.

76. The OCP culture used which among the following ornaments?

77. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The southern part of India has not produced cultural evidence of a full-fledged chalcolithic culture. Perforated and spouted vessels have been found in some sites. Copper bronze tools like chisels and flat axes occur at these sites.
2. Stone tools were unknown to this area. Red on black and grey ware pottery is found. These people survived through animal rearing and agriculture. Millets, rice, pulses and horse gram were cultivated, and fruits, leaves and tubers were collected.

78. The Iron Age in North India coincides with the which painted culture?

79. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The pottery was fine grey in colour with painted geometric designs during Iron age in North India. The painted grey ware laid the foundation of the early political formations. It correlates with the Kuru-Panchala kingdom known from the Vedic texts.
2. The Painted Grey Ware cultural phase is followed by Northern Red Polished Ware culture (NRPW), which is associated with the Ashoka and Haryanka periods. The Painted Grey ware sites reveal the development of agriculture and pastoralism, and the settlements of this period grew in dimension.
3. They show a large-scale population increase in the northern part of India. The Iron Age in North India was coeval with Painted Greyware Culture, and in South India it was associated with Megalithic burial mounds.

80. A circular tomb using big stone slabs built upon the place of burial is known as _____

81. The urn burial system was another type of practice and is evidenced in which area?

82. Which among the following statement is correct
1. In a majority of urn burials, the use of stone is almost non-existent. However, urn burials are grouped under megalithic because the materials – the pottery, iron objects, beads of semi-precious stones kept in them – are identical to those found in the stone burials.
2. The end of Megalithic burial practice is assigned to third-second centuries CE. During this period Pali writing akin to Vippasi has been discovered in Adichanallur (Thoothukudi District). There is also evidence of the megalithic tradition continuing into later centuries. During the Sangam period people still remembered urn burials.

83. The four-primitive hero-stones with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions, datable to third to second centuries BCE found in the upper part of which valley?

84. Which among the following statement is correct
1. Scholars infer, based on such evidence, that the some of the Sangam poems could be assigned to the early first century BCE or a little earlier. Th e tradition of erecting hero stones in memory of dead warrior-heroes is considered to be an extension of the menhir type of megalithic tradition.
2. Menhirs, upright monumental stones, and dolmens made of big slabs or boulders are megalithic tombs found in Tamil Nadu. Black and red ware, along with partial human remains and iron objects, were unearthed recently at Vadamalkunda in Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu.
3. A few stone slabs were also found at the site. A centuries-old menhir at Singaripalayam excavated near Kundadam in Tiruppur district points to the existence of an ancient settlement along the banks of River Uppar.

85. Who among the following conducted an excavation at Adichanallur in 1876?

86. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The British India district Collector of Tirunelveli A.J. Stuart and the famous linguist Bishop Robert Caldwell visited Adichanallur subsequently, found it was a quartz site. Quarrying was immediately banned and archaeological excavation commenced under the supervision of Alexander Rea.
2. Rea prepared a comprehensive account of his findings, illustrated by photographs, and was published in the annual report of the Archaeological Survey of British (ASB), 1902–03. Nearly a hundred years later, the ASB carried out another excavation and brought out more information.

87. Which among the following is not yielded from burial mound at Adichanallur?

88. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The engraving of animals on bronze and on ornaments is indicative of the primitive workmanship. (Caldwell could stumble upon a copper bangle during his inspection at the site.) The people were evidently skilful in moulding pottery, in casting or brassing metals, in weaving and in working stone and wood.
2. The presence of husks of rice and millet indicates domestication of these grains. Iron weapons were used for both wars, and for animal sacrifices. The discovery of sacrificial implements prompted Caldwell to conclude that the people of Adichanallur were not adherents of Vedic religion.

89. Which among the following is not the megalithic Sites in Tamil Nadu?

90. Paiyampalli is a village in Tirupathur taluk located in which district?

91. Kodumanal, 40 km from Erode, is located on the northern bank of which river?

92. In habitation trenches and megalithic burials of Kodumanal, the goods unearthed included pots, weapons, tools, ornaments, and beads, particularly carnelian, akin to those found at where?

93. In which Sangam work a place called Kodumanam belonging to the Chera king, is praised for gemstones?

94. Hoard of which coins have been discovered in Kodumanal?

95. Which among the following statement is correct
1. Conches and bangles, remnants of furnaces, a kiln floor filled with ash soot, and potsherds with Sanskrit inscriptions are other finds in the site. Pit burials, urn burials and chamber tombs of different types excavated at Kodumanal and the names inscribed on potsherds may indicate habitation by similar ethnic groups.
2. The graffiti etched on potsherds give a lot of information about the people and their activities. A menhir found at a burial site is assigned to the Megalithic period. According to Y. Subbarayalu, Kodumanal is coeval the Sangam anthologies (second century BCE to second century CE).

96. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The attempt to write a history of India began when the Europeans colonised India. They compiled the archaeological and literary sources, as well as oral traditions. Certain notions, for example the Aryans, were developed and used in the colonial context, when many parts of Asia and Africa were under the influence of the European powers.
2. The concept of race was widely prevalent at that time to classify and categorize people. Some of the views reflect the racist ideas of colonial times. The Aryan theory was linked to the brown-eyed yellow race and its connection with Europeans. Russians used the Aryan concept for their political agenda, ultimately leading to the War.
3. The recent studies have established that the word Aryan does not denote race, but only refers to the original speakers of Indo-Aryan languages. Though the Rig Veda is in Sanskrit, about 300 words of the Munda and Dravidian languages have been identified in it, suggesting cultural mix with earlier inhabitants.

97. Which among the following is incorrect about Aryans?

98. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The home of Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is still a matter of debate. Many scholars are of the view that the Aryans came to India as migrants from Central Asia. It is also believed that several waves of Indo-Aryan migration might have happened. There are several factors which support this hypothesis.
2. The traits of the culture of Aryans cover Eastern Europe and Central Asia which is geographically interlinked with India and West Asia and Europe. One of the accepted areas of the Aryan home is Eastern Europe-Central Asia, north of the Black Sea. The Bactria-Margina Archaeological Complex is closely related to Aryan culture dated to 1900 BCE–1500 BCE. Ceramics of South Central Asian archaeological sites resemble those found in the Swat valley.

99. Which among the following inscription does not refers name similar to the Vedic gods?

100. In the Rig Veda the term vrishabha means what?

101. Which genetic marker (DNA) is said to have been found among the speakers of Indo-Europeans?

102. In which among the following region in Indian subcontinent the early audience didn’t lived?

104. When the Rig Vedic people moved into India, they came into conflict with people whom they referred to as what?

103. The Early Vedic culture is placed between which period?

105. Which among the following groups are grouped with dasyus as mentioned in Rig Veda?

106. Who is the son of Kulitara mentioned in Rig Veda as a chief with 90 forts or settlements?

107. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of a chief called Sambara by whom?

108. Which among the following statement is incorrect
1. The concept of polity developed in the Rig Vedic time. Various units of habitation and divisions such as the janas, vis, gana, grama and kula are referred to in the Rig Veda. The Vedas speak about the Aryans and their enemies and the battles they fought with them.
2. The battles were fought more for land and material wealth and the war booty acquired was shared. The fought with the non-Aryans mostly, but not among themselves. They invoked the support of the gods in their battles. They strongly believed that prayers, sacrifices and rituals could offer support in their mundane life.

109. Which among the following god is called as Purandara?

110. Which were the ruling Aryan clans who were supported by Vasishta, the priest?

111. The battle of Ten Kings took place on the banks of which river?

112. The Purus and Bharatas formed an alliance and later they formed which clan?

113. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The Vedic people distinguished themselves from the non-Aryan people. Varna was the term used by Aryans to refer to colour and category. The Rig Veda refers to Arya varna and Dasa varna. The Dasas and Dasyus were Merchants. They came to be considered Vaisyas in the later period.
2. Social classes were classified as warriors, priests and common people. Sudras as a category of people appeared at the end of the Rig Vedic period. Slavery was common and slaves were given as gifts to the priests, but there is no reference to wage labour. Horse-drawn chariots and bronze objects were possessed by a few, suggesting social distinction.
3. Vedic society was largely egalitarian initially, and social distinctions emerged later. According to the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda the various varnas emerged thus: Brahmanas from the mouth, the kshatriya from the arms, the vaisya from the thighs and the sudra from the feet of Purusha, when he was sacrificed.

114. Who among the following were itinerary traders or perhaps caravan traders?

115. The term Jana means what?

116. In Rig vedic society which was the main social unit within the tribe?

117. In Rig Vedas, the family (griha) was headed by whom?

118. Which among the following statement is correct regarding Rig Vedic period
1. Women had a respectable position but it is not possible to generalise about this. Society was essentially patriarchal with a preference for male children and cattle. The birth of a son was preferred perhaps because of the martial nature of the society, which required male members for their clashes to establish dominance over the territories.
2. Having ten sons was considered as a blessing. Women was prohibited to attend assemblies and offered sacrifices. Marriage was common but primitive practices were also continued. Polyandry seems to have existed, and widow remarriage was not seen possible. People married at the age of 16–17, according to scholars, and there is little evidence of child marriage.

119. During Rig Veda period the field was known as ______

120. Which among the following term meant the furrow created by ploughing during Rig Vedic period?

121. The term yuvam was refer to which among the following grains?

122. The term for war in the Rig Veda was _____

123. The term ayas in the Rig Veda refers to what?

124. Which among the following term used to refer blacksmith in Rig Vedic?

125. Which among the following term is used to refer carpenters in Rig Veda?

126. Which among the following was a gold or silver ornament used in barter during Rig Vedic period?

127. Which among the following statement is correct
1. Trading activities were limited though traders were present during the Early Vedic period. Panis are referred to as traders and they were perhaps caravan traders. The word pan means barter, which was a mode of exchange.
2. The danas and dakshinas offered to people were means of redistributing resources. The dakshina was both a fee for a specific service and also a means of distributing wealth. The distribution of cows helped spread pastoral activities and economic production.

128. Which among the following term refers to boats?

129. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The polity of the Rig Vedic period was that of a tribal society. The chief of the tribe was the main political head and he was called Arasa. The kings lived in multipillared palaces. They offered gifts of cattle, chariots and horse ornaments and gold to the priests
2. In the Rig Veda, the natural forces sun, moon, rivers, mountains and rains were defined as divinities. The religion was naturalistic and polytheistic. Indra was the most important god and he was called Purandara.

130 The assembly that elect the Rajan in Rig Vedic period incalled as _________

131. Which among the following was the main weapon of Vedic society?

132. Who among the following was the chief of the Purus, gave away 50 women as a gift?

133. Which among the following is not the assemblies mentioned in the Rig Veda?

134. Which among the following was the assembly of elders or the elites?

135. Women attended which among the following assemblies?

136. Who was the chief of army in Rig Vedic period?

137. Which among the following statement is correct
1. The people made voluntary contribution called kali to the king. Some scholars say that kali was an imposed tax, and not voluntary. There is no reference to the administration of justice.
2. The officer who controlled the territory was called Vrajapati. He helped the kulapas or heads of fighting groups called gramini. Gramini was the head of the village and fighting unit. Religion and rituals played an important role in Vedic society.

138. Who was seen as intermediary between god and people during Rig Veda?

139. Who was the goddess of dawn?

140. Who among the following was the god of water?

141. Who among the following was the god of plants?

142. Which among the following statement is correct
1. In the early Vedic period lineage and tribes constituted society, and the king had ultimate power. The various tribal groups of Aryans and non-Aryans fought to control the territories. Social divisions started to take deep root, although the concept of varna and Aryan identities existed.
2. Pastoralism was predominant and cattle centred clashes were common, although agriculture did play an important role. The archaeological sites suggest different types of craft production including metal, carpentry, pottery and clothes.

143. Who among the following was the god of strength?